ADI PARVA

ADHI PARVAM

1. Anukramanika Parva

Sauti meets Rishis in a forest. They express a desire to hear Mahabharata. The parva describes the significance of Mahabharata, claims comprehensive synthesis of all human knowledge, and why it must be studied.    Click to See....

2. Sangraha Parva

Outline of contents of 18 books of Mahabharata.   Click to See....

3. Paushya Parva

Stories about Janamejaya, Aruni, Upamanyu, Utanka, Paushya and sage Dhaumya.   Click to See...

Paushya Parva

This is the third of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of Vyasa Mahabharata. This Section is a prelude to the Snake Sacrifice of King Janamejaya where the Mahabharata was narrated. In this is the story of how Janamejaya got cursed by Sarama to experience great anxiety when least expected, and the story of how Rishi Uttanka wanted to destroy Takshaka, the Naga king, through Janamejaya. This Upa Parva also narrates the stories of Aruni Uddalaka and Upananyu, who followed their teacher Ayoda Dhaumya’s instructions to the extremes.

This Upa Parva contains 1 Chapter and 195 Shlokas, mostly in prose. According to the Nilakantha’s Bombay recension, there are 188 Shlokas in this Upa Parva. There are no major differences in the actual Shlokas between the two versions, but they differ in terms of numbering the Shlokas.

Janamejaya, the son of Parikshit,was performing a long sacrifice along with his brothers. The celestial dog Saurameya, who approached the sacrificial grounds, was beaten up by Janamejaya’s brothers. The dog went crying to its mother and told her what had happened. Anguished at the suffering of her son, Saramaapproached Janamejaya and cursed him to face an unexpected anguish. In order to propitiate himself of the curse, Janamejaya engaged Somashrava, the son of sage Srutashrava born out of a she-snake. 

Contemporary to Janamejaya was a famous sage named Ayoda Dhaumya, who had 3 disciples: Aruni, Upamanyu and Veda. The teacher used to test his disciples in a hard way and he would bless them if they passed his trials. He tested Aruni by asking him to repair the breached field, and blessed him when the latter accomplished it. He came to be known as Aruni Uddalaka. Dhaumya asked his second disciple Upamanyu to tend the cattle and put some conditions on the latter’s begging of alms. The boy lost his sight while adhering to those rules. Then the teacher graced him by making him invoke the twin gods Ashvins. Veda also passed his master’s tests and was blessed by him.

Later Veda acquired three disciples. He was familiar with the hardships faced by a resident scholar in his preceptor’s abode. His disciple Uttanka received the blessings of teacher by conducting himself in a righteous manner. Having completed his studies, Uttanka expressed his desire of offering Gurudakshina to his teacher. On the latter’s advice, he approached his preceptor’s wife, who commanded him to bring the earrings of the wife of King Paushya. She desired to wear them on the occasion of Punyaka Vrata four days from thence. Uttanka set out for the palace of Paushya. On his way he saw a big man seated on the back of a bull. Acting on his advice, Uttanka ate the excreta of that bull and drank its urine. Upon reaching the king Paushya, Uttanka was directed to the queen’s apartments. But Uttanka did not see her there. So he again went to the king. Paushya told him that an impure person could not see the queen. Then Uttanka, realizing that he had become impure when he urinated while standing, purified himself and hurried to the queen’s quarters. When he begged her to give the ear-rings, she presented them to him and warned him to be careful as the serpent Takshaka coveted them. When Uttanka went to take leave of the king, the latter requested him to be his guest for Shraddha meals as he was a qualified Brahmin. Having found a hair in the food served to him, Uttanka cursed the king to become blind for serving impure food. The king also cursed the Brahmin to become childless, for the sin of accusing the food to be impure while it was indeed pure. And both of them requested the other to lift the curse. But the king expressed his inability to remove his curse as he was of royal blood. Uttankalifted his curse on the king and went his way taking his gift. On the way, Takshakastole the ear-rings. Uttanka followed him to the Nether World, got back the ear-rings and found his way out from there, with the help of a great being, and handed over in time the ear-rings to his preceptor’s wife. The virtuous Uttanka, however, developed animosity towards Takshaka, and to take revenge on him, approached King Janamejaya, and encouraged him to perform the snake sacrifice.

The Upa Parva is possibly the most ‘teasing’ portion of the Adi Parva. It has many intriguing narrations and makes one wonder why these events are narrated here.

Firstly, one wonders why this Upa Parva is named Paushya Parva. Because, the word Paushya is only casually mentioned midway in the Upa Parva as having appointed Veda his preceptor, as did Janamejaya (Shloka 85); and it is Veda’s disciple Uttanka who is asked to fetch the ear-rings of Paushya’s wife. The Parva could, as well, have been named after Uttanka, who is the subject of 109 of the 195 Shlokas in this Section. Paushya is mentioned barely a dozen times.

Then, again, why the peculiar narrative of a dog being beaten up by Janamejaya’s brothers, with which this Parva opens? The Sacrifice that Janamejaya is engaged in when the Parva opens is not the great holocaust of snakes but a sacrifice he was conducting at Kurukshetra. The Shatapatha Brahmana (13.5.41) refers to such a horse-sacrifice by the king and his three brothers. He starts thinking of the Snake Sacrifice only at the very end of the Parva after Uttanka has urged him to avenge his father’s killing by Takshaka.

A little textual analysis reveals that a master storyteller is at work. Sauti has started weaving his incredibly involved web of narrative, where an apparently irrelevant episode turns up hundreds of Shlokas later as the seed of a crucial event. At times, the intricacy is so great that Sauti himself forgets to link up the loose thread finally. An example of this is the opening section of the Parva. The curse of Sarama leads Janamejaya to seek out Somashrava, born of a snake that drank Shrutashrava’s semen, and make him his priest. Somashrava observes a special principle: he will immediately grant whatever a Brahmin asks. Then, Janamejaya leaves on a campaign to annex Takshashila and the narrative abruptly shifts to Ayoda Dhaumya and his disciples. The intention appears to have been to link Somashrava to Astika, both snake-born. Astika would ask for the Snake Sacrifice to be stopped and Somashrava, bound by his principle, would have to agree. Unfortunately, by the time Sauti comes to this point in the 56th chapter of the Astika Parva, he has forgotten all about Somashrava—who thus loses his only claim to memorability—and has Janamejaya persuaded by all the Brahmins present to give in to Astika. And so, the first 18 Shlokas of the Paushya Parva remain in limbo. It is interesting to note that Takshaka is known to have lived in Takshashila, after his abode Khandava forest was burnt down by Arjuna. Some sources also tell us that Shrutashrava, the father of Somashrava, was the brother of Takshaka, whom Janamejaya defeated!

We now have what seems to be a digression about the virtues of blind and punctilious obedience to the Guru’s commands: the stories of Aruni, Upamanyuand Veda, the three disciples of Ayoda Dhaumya. Ayoda Dhaumya seems to be different from Dhaumya, who became the Purohit of the the Pandava household (Chaitraratha Parva in Adi Parva). Here is a story of a teacher and the taught, wherein Aruni applies himself as a plug for a breach in a field canal and Upamanyu is driven blind through starvation. Veda is made to take care of the household chores. Veda, in turn, has a disciple named Uttanka who is cheated by Takshaka and, in revenge, persuades Janamejaya to hold the snake-sacrifice. Thus we find the cunning artificer at work as Vyasa the “arranger” finally brings his epic to its starting point, answering the unasked question present in the mind of every reader right from the beginning: why did the Snake Sacrifice take place, which became the venue for the recital of the Mahabharata?

The episodes concerning these three disciples cast fascinating light on the teacher-taught relationship in ancient India in which utter dedication and unquestioning faith in the teacher’s commands were required of the pupil. This attitude built up a state of receptivity in the student and the various experiences he underwent acted as stepping-stones to the achievement of the final goal (Shlokas 29-30), wherein the disciple is blessed with the ability to "see" all the Vedas and the Dharma Shastras. Aruni achieves this and, in the process, is metamorphosed into Uddalaka, using not his entire body to plug a breach in the canal. Aruni-Uddalaka is the famous originator of the doctrine tat tvam asi (“you are that”) in the Chhandogya Upanishad, and the father of Shvetaketu who laid down the law regarding monogamy for Brahmins (Adi Parva Chapter 121). Uddalaka Aruni later came to be known as Vajashravasa, because of his community feeding programmes, and his son was Nachiketa of the Katha Upanishad.

His compatriot Upamanyu also masters Vedas easily, as blessed by the Asvins and his teacher. His story continues in the Anushasana Parva, where Krishna seeks guidance from him concerning the glory of Shiva, and learns the cause for his craving for cow's milk. His parents, like Ashvatthama’s, were too poor to afford a cow and the craving led to his tapasya for Shiva’s darshana. Upamanyu’s Guru relentlessly prevents him from concentrating on his stomach by prohibiting him, in stages, from partaking of alms, milk and even the froth spat out by suckling calves until, driven by hunger, he chews Arka (Calotropis Gigantea) leaves and goes blind. That is when he turns his sight inwards to invoke a vision of dazzling beauty with numerous Rigvedic echoes, particularly of the Ashvins rescuing Vandana from a pit to the light (Rig Veda X. 39) and restoring sight to Rijarashva (I.116). The passage of Upamanyu's invocation to Ashvins in Paushya Parva (Shlokas 60-70) is a complex one to translate.

The Paushya Parva is remarkable for a passage that is possibly unique in Puranik lore: the exchange of curses between Paushya and Uttanka. Uttanka revokes his curse when Paushya admits his mistake, but the king cannot because the Kshatriya’s heart is not forgiving (Shlokas 132-133). Uttanka tells Paushya that the curse is futile being based on misapprehension (Shloka 134). This is the only instance of a curse failing and that too on extremely logical grounds. This incident raises certain basic questions about the very nature of a curse: is it pre-cognition or some type of induced mental-block or enforced emotional impulse?

The reference to standing and urinating as a source of impurity is interesting, as even today, in many parts of India, Brahmins following the scriptures, do not stand while urinating. 

The story of Uttanka is retold in Chapters 53-58 of the Ashvamedhika Parva, with Indra disguised as an untouchable instead of a cowherd, along with a fascinating confrontation with Krishna. In this version, Uttanka’s preceptor is Gautama who does not give him permission to leave and become a householder although he has grown old serving him. Finally, Uttanka, collapsing under a load of firewood, complains to Gautama who marries him to his daughter. On approaching Ahalya, Gautama’s wife, when he insists on giving Guru Dakshina, she wants him to bring the earrings of King Saudasa’s wife. Saudasa was King Kalmashpada, turned into a Rakshasa by Vasishtha’s curse (Adi Parva, Chapters 175-176). Uttanka obtains the earrings, escapes being eaten-up, loses them to a snake of Airavata’s family and recovers them with the help of Indra and Agni . Some details about the earrings are described by queen Madayanti: they produce gold and their wearer is free from the pangs of hunger and thirst and is safe from poison, fire and wild animals. The gold-producing quality links them up with the earrings of Aditi, mother of the gods, that were stolen by Narakasura and had to be recovered by Krishna (Harivamsha). The encounter with Indra-as-bull is changed into a separate episode where Indra as an untouchable Chandala offers thirsty Uttankahis urine to drink. Uttanka refuses, (as in the Adi Parva he initially rejects the order to eat the bull’s dung) and later learns that this was Amrita. Furious with Takshaka who stole the earrings from him disguised as a Kshapanaka (naked mendicant), Uttanka reproaches Janamejaya for not taking revenge for his father being stung to death and urges that he destroy Takshaka in a holocaust of snakes. Thus the stage is set for the recitation of the epic during the Snake Sacrifice.

There also is a mention of Rishi Uttanka, later in the Vanaparva, in the context of the killing of Rakshasa Dundhu, the son of Madhu and Kaitabha.

4. Pauloma Parva

History of Bhargava race of men and Ruru. Story of Pauloma and Chyavana.  Click to See...

Pauloma Parva

This is the fourth of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of Vyasa Mahabharata. This Section is a prelude to the Snake Sacrifice of King Janamejaya where the Mahabharata was narrated. This Upa Parva contains 9 Chapters and 139 Shlokas. According to the Nilakantha’s Bombay recension, there are 171 Shlokas in this Upa Parva.

In this is the story of how Rishi Ruru developed enemity towards the snakes and vowed to kill them whenever he saw one. The Upa Parva begins with the description of the Bhrigu lineage up to Shaunaka to whom Suta Ugrashravanarrates the story of Mahabharata in Naimisharanya. The two important episodes described in this Upa Parva are: the birth of Chyavana wherein the Bhrigu curses Agni and the love between Ruru and Pramadvara, where Ruru gives half his life span to his wife Pramadvara to return alive from death due to a snake bite. In here also is the wise saying that “non-violence is the greatest virtue” – in the form of a conversation between Rishi Sahasrapada and Ruru.

Bhrigu Lineage

Bhrigu was begotten by self-existing Brahma from the fire at Varuna's sacrifice. Bhrigu had a beloved son, named Chyavana. Chyavana had a virtuous son, named Pramati. He had a son, named Ruru by Ghritachi. Ruru had a son – Shunaka - by his wife Pramadvara. Shaunaka is Shunaka’s grandson.

The birth of Chyavana

This Upa Parva tells us that the fetus growing inside Puloma angrily fell out of the mother, and that child later came to be known as Chyavana. There is a wonderful description of a Rakshasa in the form of boar lifting off a fully pregnant woman and flying in the sky, and the fully grown fetus falling off the mother, casting an angry look at the demon who is instantly burnt into ashes. The child of Brighu in the womb, enraged by this action, came out of the mother’s body. Because of this he came to be known as Chyavana (Chyuta means fallen; hence the name Chyavana).

In the Critical Edition, Chapter seems to end abruptly, without mentioning what Agni told the Rakshasa. This part of the text, however, is available in the Nilakantha Recension, which is given as a footnote, in this Kannada Translation. 

Bhrigu’s curse to Agni

Rishi Brighu soon learnt from his wife all that had happened. Enraged that it was Agni who revealed his wife to the Rákshasha, Brighu cursed Agni thus “May you become an eater of all things”

Agni, enraged at Brighu’s curse, asked, “O Brahmana, why this rashness against me who only spoke the truth? A witness who misrepresents facts will have ruined his ancestors and descendants up to seven generations on either side. Even if one remains silent when questioned, the effects are the same. The butter that is poured on me during rituals appeases the Devas and Pitris. The rites of Darsha (performed on Amavasya, on new moon day) and Paurnamása (performed on full-moon day) respectively feed the Pitris and Devas. As the ghee poured on me is consumed by them, I am considered their mouth. How can I, who feed them, become an eater of all things?” Saying thus, Agni subsequently withdrew himself from all places, causing discomfort to all living beings because of the loss of sacrificial fire.

And the Rishis and Devas went to Brahma and requested for a timely resolution. Brahma summoned Agni and said, “This decision of yours to abstain from sacrifices does not befit your stature. You will remain eternally pure, and will not be reduced to someone who eats all promiscuously. Only the flame from your viler parts of the body will be a consumer of all things. Everything burnt by your flames will become pure. Make the words of the Rishi come true, while continuing to receive the offerings on behalf of the Devas and Pitris”

Agni replied “so I will”. And everyone rejoiced as from then on the Rishis were able to continue the rituals as before.

Ruru and Pramadvara

We all know the popular story of Savitri who along with Yama to bring her deceased husband back to life. The story is so popular in the households of India that we assume that only a woman is capable of such a sacrifice. Little is known about the sacrifice of Ruru as told in the Mahabharata. A lovely story of undying love is told in the Pauloma Parva of the Mahabharata.

Cyavana (Bhrugu‘s son) and his wife Sukanya (Saryati’s daughter) had a son called Pramati. Pramati’s son Ruru fell in love with the beautiful Pramadvara, the daughter abandoned by Menaka, the Apsara and Viswavasu, the Gandharva King. Pramadvara was raised by Rishi Sthulakesa, much as Sakuntala was raised by Kanva.

Their wedding was fixed on the day of the Varga Daivata Nakshatra (Purva Phalguni). It is interesting to note that the marriage was fixed by Nakshatra alone and not by horoscopes. Rama and Sita were married in the Uttara Phalguni Nakshatra and Ruru Pramadvara in the Poorva Phalguni Nakshatra.

Days before the marriage, Pramadvara stepped on a snake (Naga) and turned hideous and died of snake-bite. Ruru went off by himself and lamented uncontrollably. Then a messenger from heaven appeared and gave him a solution. He said that if Ruru gave up half his life-duration (Ayu) to Pramadvara, then she would live! Ruru did this so happily and the messenger talked to Yama Dharmaraja and arranged the transfer of half his Ayu to Pramadvara and brought her back to life. Ruru's lifespan was reduced by half. They were married and led a life of sincerity and happiness. Marriage is but the shedding of a part of oneself to accommodate the other.

Dundubha

Ruru was very angry with the Nagas thenceforth and killed one whenever he saw one. Once he meets an nonpoisonous snake – Dundubha – who, when attacked by Ruru, resumed his human form.

Dundubha was a rishi named Sahasrapat previously who had a friend named Khagama. Khagama was a great ascetic. One day when Khagama was in his meditation, Sahasrapat has playful prepared a grass snake and put it around the neck of Khagama, at which Khagama curses Sahasrapat to become a useless, venom-less snake like Dundubha. When Sahasrapat apologizes to Khagama, saying that he has only done that in playful mood, and as a friend, Khagama says "when Ruru , son of Pramati visits you, you should be delivered of my curse".

Rishi Sahasrapat tells Ruru: "O Brahmana, non-violence is the highest virtue. Hence, the Vedas proclaim that Brahmana should be mild and considerate and should never take a life. A Brahmana should study Veda, Vedangas, and inspire people to be righteous. It is not for a Brahmana to wield a weapon and punish others like a Kshatriya."

5. Astika Parva

Mahabharata's version of churning of ocean to create the world. Theories on dharma, bondage and release. Story about snakes, Janamejya's vow to kill all snakes, step to annihilate them with a sacrificial fire, decision to apply Ahimsa(non-violence) to snakes and all life forms. Story of birth of Astika.   Click to See...

Astika Parva

This is the fifth of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. This Upa Parva mainly describes the antecedents of the great Sarpa Yaga, organized by King Janamejaya, where the Mahabharata was narrated to him by Vaishampayana. The main contents of this Upa Parva include: Samudra Mathana, mother's curse on Nagas to be burnt in a sacrifice, Garuda stealing Amrita for the Nagas in exchange of his mother's freedom, the birth of Astika to save the snakes from the sacrifice, the death of Parikshit by Naga king Takshaka as per the curse of Shamika Rishi, and the snake sacrifice organized by Parikshit's son Janamejayawhich was stopped by Astika.

This Upa Parva has a total of 1025 Shlokas organized into 41 Chapters (Chapters 13 to 53 in Adi Parva). A chapter-wise summary of the Upa Parva is given below, with the Shloka numbers in parentheses:

1. Chapter 13: Shaunaka asks Ugrashrava to tell the story of Astika (1-5). A summary of Astika’s story (6-45).
2. Chapter 14: Kashyapa’s wives Vinata and Kadru are expecting offsprings (1-10). The birth of Aruna, and he curses his mother (11-20). The birth of Garuda (21-23).
3. Chapter 15: The Devas counsel on Mount Meru (1-10). Narayana suggests to churn the ocean (11-13).
4. Chapter 16: Ananta pulls out Mount Mandara and gives it as churning stick (1-10). Kurma holds Mount Mandara on his back; the Devas and the Daityas churn the ocean (11-15). Calamities due to the churning of the ocean (15-25). Narayana provides strength to the tired Devas (26-30). The birth of many lives and articles from the ocean churning (31-37). The birth of Amrita, and Narayana assumes the form of Mohini (38-40).
5. Chapter 17: Based on the information by Surya and Chandra, Narayana in his Mohiniform, cuts off the head of Rahu in disguise of a Deva, who was consuming Amirta (1-10). War between the Devas and the Daityas for Amrita; Nara and Narayana bring victory to the Devas (11-25). The Devas install tight security for Amrita (26-30).
6. Chapter 18: A wager between Vinata and Kadru regarding the colour of Ucchaishrava’s tail (1-5). Kadru curses her children – the Nagas (6-10).
7. Chapter 19: Kadru and Vinata see the ocean (1-2). A description of the ocean (3-15).
8. Chapter 20: Vinata loses the wager and becomes a slave to Kadru (1-2). The birth of Garuda, and the Garuda hymn by the Devas (3-15).
9. Chapter 21: The Nagas are troubled by the sun, while Vinata and Garuda were carrying them towards a picnic spot (1-50. Kadru offers prayers to Indra to cause rains (6-15).
10. Chapter 22: Indra revives the Nagas through pouring rains over them (1-5).
11. Chapter 23: Garuda takes the Nagas to an island (1-5). Vinata explains Garuda the reasons for their slavery (6-10). The Nagas ask Garuda for Amrita in exchange for release from slavery (11-12).
12. Chapter 24: Garuda sets out to bring Amrita; Vinata bids him farewell suggesting that he should consume Nishadas as his food, and he should never consume the Brahmans (1-9). Garuda swallows the Nishadas (10-15).
13. Chapter 25: Garuda releases a Brahman that he swallowed accidentally (1-5). Garudameets his father Kashyapa (6-9). The story of Supratika and Vibhavasu, who were born as an elephant and a tortoise, respectively (10-25). Garuda catches the elephant and the tortoise and takes to the sky (26-30).
14. Chapter 26: Garuda once again takes to the skies carrying the tree branch where Valakhilyas were hanging (1-15). Garuda keeps the tree branch on a hill-top and consumes the elephant and the tortoise (16-25). The Devas see evil-omens and take up their weapons (26-45).
15. Chapter 27: Valakhilyas, insulted by Indra, perform a sacrifice for the birth of Garuda(1-10). As a consequence of this sacrifice, Aruna and Garuda are born in Vinata (11-35).
16. Chapter 28: Garuda defeats the Devas in a fight (1-20). Garuda causes a storm of fire (21-25).
17. Chapter 29: Garuda steals Amrita (1-10). Garuda meets Vishnu in the skies and grants him a boon (11-15). Respecting Indra’s Vajra, Garuda drops one of his feathers, Indraasks Garuda’s friendship (16-20).
18. Chapter 30: Garuda accepts Indra’s friendship (1-5). Indra grants Garuda a boon (6-10). Garuda hands over Amrita to the Nagas, but Indra steals it back (11-20).
19. Chapter 31: Names of the chiefs among the Nagas (1-18).
20. Chapter 32: Shesha abandons his mother and takes to Tapas (1-5). Brahma grants Shesha a boon (6-25).
21. Chapter 33: Vasuki holds a consultation with the other Nagas in order to escape from Kadru’s curse (1-5). The Nagas advise him (6-30).
22. Chapter 34: Elapatra suggests a plan to release themselves from the curse (1-15).
23. Chapter 35: Vasuki confirms from Brahma about Elapatra’s advise and takes special care of his sister Jaratkaru (1-10). He orders the other Nagas to keep a watch on Rishi Jaratkaru (11-13).
24. Chapter 36: The meaning of the term Jaratkaru and Jaratkaru’s Tapas (1-7). While searching for a deer at hunting, Parikshit insults Muni Shamika (8-20). Shamika’s son Shringi hears about this insult (21-25).
25. Chapter 37: Shringi curses Parikshit (1-10). Shamika asks son Shringi to take back the curse (11-25).
26. Chapter 38: When Shringi is not capable of taking back the curse, Shamika sends a word of caution to Parikshit (1-20). Parikshit arranges for his protection (21-30). Takshaka stops a Kashyapa brahmin who was traveling to save Parikshit (31-39).
27. Chapter 39: Takshaka sends back the Kashyapa (1-20). Takshata bites and kills Parikshit (21-30).
28. Chapter 40: The coronation of Janamejaya and his marriage with Vapushtama (1-10).
29. Chapter 41: Conversation between Jaratkaru and his ancestors who are in pain (1-30).
30. Chapter 42: Jaratkaru puts conditions for his marriage (1-5). While he was searching for a bride, Vasuki comes forward to give his sister in marriage (6-20).
31. Chapter 43: Muni Jaratkaru marries Vasuki’s sister Jaratkaru, as per his conditions (1-10). Jaratkaru tries to wake up her husband from sleep when the time was due for evening rituals (11-20). Jaratkaru leaves his wife, saying that she is pregnant with a child (21-35).
32. Chapter 44: Jaratkaru reports the events to her brother Vasuki (1-10). The birth of Astika and his education (11-20).
33. Chapter 45: Janamejaya learns of the circumstances that led to his father’s death (1-25).
34. Chapter 46: Report and evidence of Takshaka bribing the Kashyapa not to protect Parikshit (1-25). Janamejaya decides to take revenge on Takshaka (26-40).
35. Chapter 47: Janamejaya undertakes Sarpa Yaga (1-10). He orders no one to enter the Yaga Shala (11-15). The Yaga begins and the Nagas start to fall into the sacrificial fire (16-25).
36. Chapter 48: The names of the main priests in Sarpa Yaga (1-10). Takshaka comes under Indra’s protection (11-20). Vasuki asks his sister to summon Astika (20-25).
37. Chapter 49: Conversation between Astika and Jaratkaru (1-15). Astika requests entry into Janamejaya’s Yaga Shala (16-25).
38. Chapter 50: Astika praises Janamejaya’s Sarpa Yaga (1-15).
39. Chapter 51: The priests urge Janamejaya not to grant any boon to Astika till Takshaka falls into the sacrificial fire (1-5). Takshaka slips from Indra’s throne and falls (6-10). Astika asks his boon, but Janamejaya urges him to ask an alternative boon (11-25).
40. Chapter 52: The names of the Nagas that were destroyed in the Sarpa Yaga (1-22).
41. Chapter 53: Astika obtaines his boon and stops Takshaka from falling into the sacrifical fire (1-5). The happy Nagas grant boons to Astika (6-20). Shaunaka asks Ugrashrava to narrate the story of Mahabharata, composed by Vyasa, that was narrated to Janamejaya during the Sarpa Yaga (21-35).

6. Adivansavatarana Parva

History of Pandava and Kuru princes. Story of Bhishma, Satyavati, Karna, Vasudeva and Animandavya. Appeal to Brahma that gods should reincarnate to save the chaos that earth has become.   Click to See...

Amshavatarana Parva

This is the sixth of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. This Upa Parva mainly describes the divine secret of Mahabharata - the battle staged by the Gods and anti-Gods on earth. The anti-Gods take birth on earth as powerful kings to destroy Dharma and thus to weaken the Gods. The Gods and their allies take birth on earth to defeat the designs of the anti-Gods and to lighten the burden on earth. Lord Narayana takes birth as Krishna.

This Section also describes the stories of Vasu Uparichara, the birth of Satyavati, her encounter with Rishi Parashara and the birth of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa. 

The Upa Parva has a total of 257 Shlokas organized in 5 Chapters.

7. Sambhava Parva

Theory of life on earth and gods. Story of Drona, Krona and other sages. The romance of Dushyanta and Sakuntala, their love marriage, birth of Bharata. Sakuntala goes to Dushyanta with the boy, he first refuses to remember her and their marriage, later apologizes and accepts. Bharata becomes prince. Stories of Devyani, Puru, Yadu and the Paurava race of men. The Pandava brothers retreat into the forest, their persecution by Dhritarashtra. The story about the Swayamvara of Kunti. Marriage of Madri, Vidura. Attempts to reconcile the conflict between Kauravas and Pandavas.  Click to See...

Sambhava Parva

This is the seventh of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. As the name suggests, this Upa Parva deals with the genesis of disharmony among the Kauravas and the Pandavas, as well as the generations of the Lunar race of kings – the Bharata, the Paurava, and the Kurudynasties. The main contents of Sambhava Parva include: the origins of all creatures from the sons of Brahma; the partial incarnations of Gods and anti-Gods on earth as principal characters in the great Kurukshetra war; the story of Duhshanta and Shakuntala; the story of Yayati; a complete genealogy of the Kauravas and the Pandavas; the birth of Bhishma in Ganga and Shantanu; Bhishma’s oath and the marriage of Satyavati with Shantanu;, the abduction of the princesses of Kashi by Bhishmafor Satyavati’s sons; the birth of Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura; the birth of 100 Kauravas and 5 Pandavas; the childhood rivalry between the Kauravas and the Pandavas; Drona as the teacher of the Kuru princes; and Arjuna’s excellence in archery.

This is the largest Upa Parva in Adi Parva, with a total of 2,540 Shlokas organized in 70 Chapters.

To view/download my Kannada translation of Sambhava Parva, click on the picture to the left or on the link below. Please note that some portions of the conversation between Yayati and his nephew Ashtaka are yet to be translated in this version.

007_AdiParva_SambhavaParva

One of the Upa Kathas in this Upa Parva - Shakuntala - was dramatized by Kalidasa, in his popular play Abhignana Shakuntala. Click on the link below to browse/download an English translation of this play.

8. Jatugriha-daha Parva

Kanika's counsel to Dhritarashtra on how to rule a kingdom, how deception is an effective tool for governance and war, against enemies and potential competition; Kanika's symbolic tale about jackal, tiger, mouse, mongoose and deer; his advice that a weak ruler should ignore his own weaknesses and focus on other people's weakness, pretend to be friends while being cruel and destructive to others, particularly when the competition is good and stronger. Dhritarashtra schemes to build a home for Pandavas in the forest, from lac and other inflammable materials as a friendly gesture, but with plans to burn them alive on the darkest night. Kanika's theory is called wicked and evil by Vidura, a sage of true knowledge and the good, who is also the advisor and friend to Pandavas. Vidura and Pandavas plan escape by building a tunnel inside the inflammable house. The fire, then escape of Pandavas. Dhritarashtra falsely believes Pandavas are dead.   Click to See...

Jatugriha Parva

This is the eighth of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. As the name suggests, this Upa Parva deals with the house of lacquer, wherein the Pandavas were plotted to be burnt by Duryodhana. The main contents of Jatugriha Parva include: the exhibition of weapon skills of the Kauravas and the Pandavas; Karna, who challenges Arjun, becoming a close friend of Duryodhana; and the defeat of Drupada by the Pandavas as Guru Dakshina, the jealousy of Duryodhana against the Pandavas because of the preference for the latter by the citizens of Hastinapur, plot to send the Pandavas to Varanavata, construction of lacker house in Varanavata, Vidura’s support to Pandavas to escape the plot, Pandavas setting the fire to the lacquer house and escaping through a tunnel which was built with the help of Vidura, the mourning of the Kurus over the Pandavas assumed to have died in the fire, and the anguish of Bhima over the troubles his mother and brothers had to go through.

The Upa Parva has a total of 227 Shlokas organized in 10 Chapters.

9. Viduragamana Parva

After escape from fire, the wanderings of Pandava brothers. Story of Bhima and the she-Rakshasha Hidimbi. She falls in love with Bhima and refuses to help her brother. The battle between Bhima and Hidimba's demon brother, showing the enormous strength of the giant brother Bhima. Bhima and Hidimba have a son named Ghatotkacha.   Click to See...

Viduragamana Parva

This is the 14th of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. As the name suggests, this Upa Parva mainly describes the arrival of Vidura to Drupada's kingdom to give a message from Dhritarashtra bidding the Pandavas to return to Hastinapur.

The Upa Parva has a total of 174 Shlokas organized in 7 Chapters.

10. Vaka-vadha Parva

The life of Pandavas brothers in Ekachakra. Story about Bhima slaying another demon Vaka, who has been terrorizing people of Ekachakra. Heroine of Mahabharata, Draupadi, is born in holy fire. Words spread that Pandavas may be alive.  Click to See...

Khandavadaha Parva

This is the 19th of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. As the name suggests, this Upa Parva mainly describes the burning of the Khandava forest.

This Upa Parva has a total of 338 Shlokas organized into 12 Chapters (214-224). And with this ends the Adi Parva - the first Maha Parva of the epic. The Chapter-wise summary of the Upa Parva is provided below:

Chapter 214: While the Pandavas were living happily in Indraprastha, Arjuna and Krishna set out for a river trip, with a group of friends. While they are all enjoying themselves, Arjuna and Krishna are approached by a Brahmin with a blazing appearance.

Chapter 215: The strange Brahmin requests food for his insatiable appetite; when asked what sort of food he eats, the Brahmin reveals that he is Fire, and wishes to devour the Khandava Forest. But whenever he attempts to burn the forest, Indra washes it with rain to protect his friend Takshaka, the king of the serpents. Arjuna tells Fire that he is willing to do help him succeed by thwarting Indra, but he and Krishna are in need of weapons adequate to the task.

Chapter 216: The Fire now invokes Varuna, lord of waters, and asks him to give Arjuna the bow Gandiva with two inexhaustible arrow-cases, and divine chariot, and to Krishna a discus. Varuna does as asked. Now that the heroes are prepared, they call on the Fire to begin consuming the forest, and he does so.

Chapter 217: 

11. Chaitraratha Parva

Pandavas set out for Panchala. Story of Tapati, Vashistha and Vishwamitra. Dehumanization and persecution of Bhrigu race of men.  Click to See...

Chaitraratha Parva

This is the 11th of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. This Upa Parva has the stories of the births of Draupadi and Dhrishtadyumna as told by a travelling Brahmin to the Pandavas, the previous life of Draupadi as narrated by Vyasa to the Pandavas, as well as the stories of Samvarana and Tapati - the ancestors of the Pandavas, and the stories of Vasishtha and Vishvamitra, King Kalmashapada, and Aurva as told by Gandharva Chitraratha to the Pandavas.

The Upa Parva has a total of 566 Shlokas organized in 22 Chapters.

12. Swayamvara Parva

Pandavas arrive in Panchala. Draupadi's swayamvara, Pandavas arrive in disguise, Arjuna and Bhima excel, win Draupadi's heart and hand, her marriage to Pandava brothers. Krishna introduced, recognizes the individuals in disguise are Pandava brothers.  Click to See...

Svayamvara Parva

This is the 12th of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. As the name suggests, this Upa Parva mainly describes the bridegroom choice of Draupadi. The Pandavas in disguise reach Panchala kingdom and live in a potter's house. The city is grandly decorated for the wedding of the princess, and all the kings and princes of the region arrive with the desire to win Draupadi. Dhrishtadyumna introduces all the assembled kings and princes, along with the conditions of winning Draupadi's hand. All assembled royalty fail in winning the contest. Krishna recognizes the Pandava princes, sitting amidst the Brahmins, in the assembly. When the warrior class fails the contest, Arjuna approaches the bow and hits the eye of a revolving fish high above, looking at its reflection in a pool of oil down. Draupadi puts the garland around Arjuna and chooses him as her husband. The Kshatriyas protest this, saying Draupadi should not be married to a Brahmin and king Drupada has deceived them. Bhima and Arjuna fight Shalya and Karna, respectively, in the ensuing battle. Kunti asks her sons to distribute among themselves the alms, and the five decide to marry Draupadi. Krishna and Balarama visit their aunt and her sons - the Pandavas - at the Potter's house. Dhrishtadyumna who followed them secretly, observes all this and is happy that his sister is married to the greatest archer Arjuna and the Pandavas are all alive.

The Upa Parva has a total of 223 Shlokas organized in 10 Chapters.

13. Vaivahika Parva

Drupada delights at discovering Pandavas are alive. Nuptials and marriage.  Click to See...

Vaivahika Parva

This is the 13th of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Book) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. As the name suggests, this Upa Parva mainly describes Draupadi's wedding with the five Pandava princes. Dhrishtadyumna informs Drupada, to the latter's delight, what he saw at the Potter's house; Drupada sends an invitation to the princes for a feast, attempts to understand who these princes really are; Drupada is extrremely happy that the princes are actually the Pandavas themselves, who had survived the wicked scheme of Duryodhana to burn them alive; but is totally disagreeable to Yudhishthira and Kunti's suggestion that Drupadi should wed all five; Vyasa arrives and reveals, by giving Drupada a special vision, that the Pandavas are the five Indras, who are destined to wed Draupadi and lighten the burden on earth; the wedding is concluded with much fanfare.

The Upa Parva has a total of 183 Shlokas organized in 7 Chapters.

14. Viduragamana Parva

Vidura's attempt to reconcile the evil Kaurava brothers and the good Pandava brothers. Various speeches by Karna, Bhishma, Drona and Vidura.  Click to See...

Viduragamana Parva

This is the 14th of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. As the name suggests, this Upa Parva mainly describes the arrival of Vidura to Drupada's kingdom to give a message from Dhritarashtra bidding the Pandavas to return to Hastinapur.

The Upa Parva has a total of 174 Shlokas organized in 7 Chapters.

15. Rajya-labha Parva

Return of Pandavas to Hastinapur, with blessings of Krishna. Construction of the city Indraprastha. Story about Sanda, Upasanda and Narada.  Click to See...

Rajyalabha Parva

This is the 15th of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. As the name suggests, this Upa Parva mainly describes the return of the Pandavas to Hastinapura and obtaining half of the Kuru kingdom - the Khandavaprastha.

The Upa Parva has only one Chapter with 49 Shlokas.

16. Arjuna-vanavasa Parva

Arjuna violates dharma. He accepts voluntary exile. Arjuna marries Ulupi and Chitrangada, rescues Apsaras. Story highlights his special powers and competence. Arjuna and Krishna become close friends. Arjuna goes to Dwarka, lives with Krishna.  Click to See...

Arjuna Vanavasa Parva

This is the 16th of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. As the name suggests, this Upa Parva mainly describes the self-imposed exile of Arjuna, since he violated the covenant the brothers had with regard to Draupadi. The Upa Parva has the stories of Sunda and Upasunda as well as Arjuna's encounter with Ulupi, Chitrangada, and the five Apsaras. Arjuna's re-union with his friend Krishna is also narrated in this Upa Parva.

This Upa Parva has a total of 295 Shlokas organised into 11 Chapters.

17. Subhadra-harana Parva

Arjuna falls for and takes away Subhadra, Krishna's sister. Upset Vrishnis prepare war with Arjuna, but finally desist.  Click to See...

Subhadraharana Parva

This is the 17th of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the VyasaMahabharata. As the name suggests, this Upa Parva mainly describes the abduction of Subhadra, Krishna's sister, by Arjuna towards the end of his exile. 

This Upa Parva has a total of 57 Shlokas organised into 2 Chapters.

18. Harana-harika Parva

Arjuna returns from exile, with Shubhadra. They marry. Their son Abhimanyu is born. Story about five sons of Draupadi.  Click to See...

Haranaharana Parva

This is the 18th of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. This Upa Parva mainly describes Balarama's anger on Arjuna for abducting his sister and Krishna pacifying him as well as the arrival of Vrishnis to Indraprastha to celebrate the wedding of Subhadra with Arjuna. In this Upa Parva, also are the descriptions of incidents where Arjuna presents Subhadra to Draupadi, the birth of Abhimanyu and the five sons of Draupadi.

This Upa Parva has only one Chapter, with 82 Shlokas.

19. Khandava-daha Parva

The rule of Yudhishthira - theory and role of effective kings. Story of Varuna, Agni and Indra. The fight of Krishna(called Achyuta) and Arjuna with celestials, show of their combined abilities and victory.  Click to See...

Khandavadaha Parva

This is the 19th of the 100 Upa Parvas (Sections), situated in Adi Parva, the first of the 18 Maha Parvas (Books) of the original Mahabharata composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa. As the name suggests, this Upa Parva mainly describes the burning of the Khandava forest.

This Upa Parva has a total of 338 Shlokas organized into 12 Chapters (214-224). And with this ends the Adi Parva - the first Maha Parva of the epic. The Chapter-wise summary of the Upa Parva is provided below:

Chapter 214: While the Pandavas were living happily in Indraprastha, Arjuna and Krishna set out for a river trip, with a group of friends. While they are all enjoying themselves, Arjuna and Krishna are approached by a Brahmin with a blazing appearance.

Chapter 215: The strange Brahmin requests food for his insatiable appetite; when asked what sort of food he eats, the Brahmin reveals that he is Fire, and wishes to devour the Khandava Forest. But whenever he attempts to burn the forest, Indra washes it with rain to protect his friend Takshaka, the king of the serpents. Arjuna tells Fire that he is willing to do help him succeed by thwarting Indra, but he and Krishna are in need of weapons adequate to the task.

Chapter 216: The Fire now invokes Varuna, lord of waters, and asks him to give Arjuna the bow Gandiva with two inexhaustible arrow-cases, and divine chariot, and to Krishna a discus. Varuna does as asked. Now that the heroes are prepared, they call on the Fire to begin consuming the forest, and he does so.

Chapter 217: 

Summary of Adiparva:

The Mahabharata is an epic of 18 books called parvas. There are 100 upa-parvas or sections. There are 19 sections in the first book, the Adiparva. The following is the summary section-wise. 1. Anukramanika-parva There is only one chapter containing 275 verses in this section. Sage Saunaka had been performing in the Naimisa forest a sacrifice of the type Satra that would run for 12 years. All the ascetics had gathered there. At that time there arrived the pauranic (epic-teller) Ugrasravas, the son of sage Lomaharshana. After the usual enquiry of good health was over, the sages expressed their desire to listen to the story of the Mahabharata. Having saluted the Supreme Lord, Ugrasravas started to recount the story of the Mahabharata as narrated by sage Vyasa.  

Sage Vyasa who was deep in contemplation had visualized the whole Mahabharata as if it occurred before his eyes. He saw the creation, the Vedas, the four purusharthas Dharma, Artha etc., and the code of conduct of mankind. Vyasa related everything concisely and also comprehensively. Then he thought of imparting to his disciples the epic Mahabharata which he had seen by the power of his austerities. Just then the creator, who cared for the welfare of the worlds, appeared before him. Having saluted him, Vyasa described to him the features of the epic and also his intention of teaching it to his disciples. Brahma advised him to mentally request Ganesha for taking the dictation, and left for his abode. Later, Vyasa had mentally invited Ganesha, and the latter appeared before him. Vyasa requested him again mentally, to act as the scribe for the epic he was going to write. Then Ganesha put a condition that Vyasa should dictate in such a way that not even for a moment would his quill pause. Vyasa also put a clause that Ganesha should write only if he understood what was being dictated. Ganesha agreed to it and became Vyasa’s scribe. For this reason Vyasa recited now and then some verses whose meaning was incomprehensible. Around 8800 verses of that type (famous by name GRANTHA GRANTHIS) are found. This section is also called Sangrahadhyaya. Not only was Vyasa the author of the Mahabharata but he was the protector of the clan of the Bharats also. At the command of his mother Satyavati and in accordance with the desire of Bhishma, Vyasa begot two sons Dhritarashtra and Pandu by the wives of Vichitravirya and another son Vidura by the servant maid of Victravirya’s wives. Later he retired to his hermitage. After the death of all his three sons, Vyasa told the story of the Mahabharata. At the request of Janamejeya, Vyasa directed his disciple Vaisampayana to recount the Mahabharata. King Pandu, who conquered the whole world, was living with the sages in the forest because of his love for hunting. One day he killed ascetic couple who were engaged in amorous acts in the guise of deer, and was cursed. From then onwards he continued to live in the forest. There he had five sons by the grace of Yama, Vayu, Indra and the Aswini twins. However, he died because of the sage’s curse while he indulged in intercourse with his wife Madri. The latter entered the funeral pyre following her husband. The ascetics conducted Kunti and the Pandavas to Hastinapura and handed over their responsibility to Bhishma. The Pandavas grew up there, became experts in using weapons, and married Draupadi. Afterwards Dharmaraja performed the Rajasuya sacrifice. Duryodhana became jealous of the prosperity of the Pandavas. Defeated in the game of dice, the Pandavas went to the forest, and later lived in disguise. Even at the completion of their incognito stay, Duryodhana refused to part with their kingdom. For this reason, a war broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. Upon the annihilation of the Kauravas in that war, the deeply anguished Dhritarashtra shared his grief with Sanjaya. (This part is called the Yadasraushaparva which contains 70 verses.) In order to appease him Sanjaya recounted the tales of the ancestral kings, and told him that it was by the power of the time everything happened. Vidura consoled Dhritarashtra, who was distraught having lost all his sons. Based on this history, Vyasa narrated the meritorious Mahabharata, which was like an Upanishad. If any one reads even one foot of a stanza of this epic with devotion, his sins are removed. It is the best among the itihasas. It’s said that if any one recites it for the Brahmins partaking Shraddha meals, his forefathers will get inexhaustible food and water. In ancient times the gods put the four Vedas in one pan of the balance and the Mahabharata in the other. The Mahabharata outweighed the Vedas. From then onwards because of greatness and weight, the epic is called Mahabharata. This is the origin of the name of the epic. 2. Parvasangraha There is one chapter with 396 verses in this section, presenting a brief description of the contents of each parva along with an account of the place Samantapanchaka and a count of the akshauhini army. During the interval period of the Treta and Dwapara yugas, an angry sage Parusurama slaughtered the royal tribes twenty one times. He created five ponds with their blood and offered oblations of blood to his forefathers. The area around these ponds is called Samantapanchaka.

An akshauhini consists of 21,870 chariots, 21,870 elephants, 65,610 horses and 1,09,350 infantry. There were 18 akshauhinis of Kaurava and Pandava army at Kurukshetra, In the battle that continued for 18 days, all that army was killed. Dhristadyumna acted as the commander-in-chief of the Pandava army. For the Kauravas, Bhishma was the chief for ten days, Drona for five days, Karna for 2 days and Salya for half a day. The fight with clubs between Duryodhana and Bhima took place for half a day. During the same night Aswatthama butchered the five sons of Pandavas, Dhrishtadyumna, Sikhandin and the remaining army of the Pandavas. All this was told in the 18 parvas and 100 Upaparvas. Harivamsa is considered the epilogue of the Mahabharata. It is also called ‘Khilapurana’. The count of 100 upaparvas is done by adding this text also. One who is well versed in the Vedas and the Vedangas, but does not know the epic is not a scholar. After listening to this great story, one will never take interest in listening to any other story. Just as a body can not survive without food, a story can not exist without being based on the Mahabharata. For one who recites or listens from others the Mahabharata, there is no need to take a dip in the Pushkara. One acquires merit equal to donating one hundred golden horned cattle to a Vedic scholar, just by listening to this story. 3. Paushyaparva This parva contains one chapter and 188 verses. This parva tells in detail the greatness of service to a teacher. The serpent sacrifice, which forms the seed of the Mahabharata story, is also described in this section only. Janamejaya, the son of Parikshit, was performing a long Satra sacrifice along with his brothers. When the celestial dog Saurameya came there, Janamejaya’s brothers beat it. The whimpering dog went to its mother and told her what had happened. Anguished at the suffering of her puppy, Surama approached them and chided them for beating her innocent child. She cursed them to face an unexpected scare. (This was the first curse in the Bharata.) Janamejaya felt dejected because of that curse. After the sacrifice was over, in order to absolve themselves of the sin that resulted in a curse, he engaged Somasravas, the son of sage Srutasravas as his priest. He and his brothers started to act on the advice of their priest. During those days there was a famous sage named Ayoda Dhaumya. He had three disciples in Aruni, Upamanyu and Veda. The teacher, who was a hard task master used to test his disciples in a hard way. And he would bless them if they passed his trials. He tested Aruni by asking him to repair the breached field, and blessed him when the latter accomplished it. Dhaumya asked his second disciple Upamanyu to tend the cattle and put some conditions on the latter’s begging of alms. The boy lost his sight while adhering to those rules. Then the teacher graced him by making him invoke the twin gods Aswins. Veda also passed his master’s tests and was blessed by him. Later Veda acquired three disciples. He was familiar with the hardships faced by a resident scholar in his preceptor’s abode. His disciple Uttanka received the blessings of teacher by conducting himself in a righteous manner. Having completed his studies, Uttanka expressed his desire of offering gurudakshina to his teacher. On the latter’s advice, he approached his preceptor’s wife, who commanded him to bring the earrings of the wife of King Paushya. She desired to wear them on the occasion of Punyakavrata four days from thence. Uttanka set out for the palace of Paushya. On his way he saw a big man seated on the back of a bull. Acting on his advice, Uttanka ate the excreta of that bull and drank its urine. However, in his excitement, he took his ablutions in a standing posture, and went to the king. Satisfied with Uttanka’s eligibility, the king directed him to the queen’s apartments. But the boy did not find her there. So he again went to the king. Paushya told him that an impure person could not see the queen. Then Uttanka performed the purifying ablution and hurried to the queen’s quarters. When he begged her to give the ear-rings, she presented them to him and warned him to be careful as the serpent Takshaka coveted them. When Uttanka went to take leave of the king, the latter requested him to be his guest for meals as he was a qualified Brahmin. Having found a hair in the food served to him, Uttanka cursed the king to become blind for serving impure food. The king also cursed the Brahmin to become childless. And both of them requested the other to lift the curse. But the king expressed his inability to remove his curse as he was of royal blood. Uttanka lifted his curse on the king and went his way taking his gift. On the way, Takshaka stole the ear-rings. Uttanka followed him to the nether world, got back the ear-rings and found his way out from there with the help of a great being to hand over in time the ear-rings to his preceptor’s wife. The virtuous Uttanka, however, developed animosity towards Takshaka, and to take revenge on him, approached King Janamejaya, and encouraged him to perform the serpent sacrifice. The purpose of the episode of Uttanka is the encouragement for the performance of the serpent sacrifice. 4. Paulomaparva This parva contains 9 chapters. There are 172 verses here. This tells about the cause of the serpent sacrifice and the destruction of the serpents in it. The important episodes here are those of Chyavan and Ruru. In the episode of Chyavan the fire god’s all consuming power is described. The story of Ruru and Pramadvara stresses the importance of non-violence. The first wise saying in the Mahabharata, the ocean of quotations is: non-violence is the greatest virtue. It is the first virtue among all the virtues of a man. Truth, patience etc. come only after that. Sage Vyasa gave this wisdom through examples. 5. Astikaparva There are 46 chapters and 1108 verses in this parva. In reply to Saunaka’s question about about the serpent sacrifice of Janamejaya and the reason for not completing it, Ugrasravas narrated the churning of the ocean for nectar, the stories of Kadru and Vinata, and the episode of Parikshit. Then he told about Astika, who stopped the serpent sacrifice. All these form part of this parva. The main reason for Janamejaya’s serpent sacrifice was his father’s death by snake-bite. His minister and Udanka encouraged the king to perform that sacrifice. The efforts to stop it are described in the episode of Astika. Parikshit, the father of Janamejaya was a king of righteous nature. Like his great grand father, he was also fond of hunting. Once while he went on hunting, he became thirsty. He went to sage Samika and asked him about a deer that escaped having been hit by his arrow. The sage, who was keeping the vow of silence, kept quiet. The king got angry and lifted a dead snake with the tip of his bow, and placed it in the neck of the sage. The son of Samika was Sringi. He was spiritually resplendent. While returning home with the permission of his preceptor, he was informed by a hemit friend Krisa about the dead snake placed round the neck of his father. Raged with fury, he took water into his hand and pronounced a curse that Parikshit would be dead bitten by the serpent Takshaka within a week. Then he came to his father and told him what had happened. Then Samika advised his son on the greatness of forgiveness and said to him: “Son, you have acted wrongly by your imprudence. We shall not curse the king.” But Sringi could not accept his father’s words. Then Samika warned Parikshit about the curse through his disciple Goramukha. The king made all arrangements to guard himself from Takshaka. Kadru and Vinata were the wives of Kasyapa. Kadru was the mother of the serpents. Once they laid a wager on the colour of the horse Ucchaisravas that was born at the time of the churning of the milky ocean. In order to win the bet, Kadru asked her sons to resort to cheating. Some of them agreed. But some others did not. Kadru said those who did not agree would perish in the serpent sacrifice of Janamejaya. Vinata who lost the bet became Kadru’s servant. Two sons Aruna and Garuda were born to her. Garuda wanted to release his mother from the bonded labour. He became strong by eating an elephant and a tortoise as advised by his father Kasyapa. Then he snatched nectar from heaven, gave it to the serpents and obtained the release of his mother. The serpents who were cursed by their mother thought of ways to escape from the curse. Advised by the serpent Elaputra, Vasuki performed the marriage of his sister Jaratkaru with sage Jaratkaru. Astika was the son of the Jaratkarus. He made Janamejaya stop the serpent sacrifice. Parikshit made all arrangements to save himself from Takshaka. A Brahmin name Kasyapa started for Hastinapura to save the king from the deadly poison of Takshaka. But the latter offered money to him and sent him back. On the seventh day of Sringi’s curse, Parikshit was killed by the poison of Takshaka. On knowing this, Janamejaya, the son of Parikshit performed the serpent sacrifice. The serpent sacrifice occupies an important place in the Mahabharata. 6. Amsavataranaparva There are six chapters and 326 verses in this section. This forms the epilogue of the Mahabharata. Asked by Janamejaya, Vaisampayana told him about the greatness of the Mahabharata. He said that Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa completed this wonderful epic in three years. Anything regarding Dharma, Artha, Kama or Moksha which is here is found elsewhere. That which is not here, is not there anywhere else. Vaisampayana narrated the stories of Uparichara and Satyavati, the birth of Vyasa, the birth of the asuras, and the coming down of the celestial beings with their respective parts. After abandoning the serpent sacrifice, one day Janamejaya asked Vyasa about the war of the Bharats. Then Vyasa directed Vaisampayana to narrate the story. And the latter narrated in brief the story of the epic. The birth of Vyasa on the Krishnadwipa from Parasara and Matsyagandhi was also told. 7. Sambhavaparva This section contains 75 chapters and 3232 verses. While giving an account of the Kuru clan, Vaisampayana told the story of Yayati, the son of Nahusha. One of the two wives of of Yayati was Devayani, the daughter of Sukracharya. She had two sons named Yadu and Turvasu. Yayati became old due to the curse of Sukracharya. But he still desired sensual pleasures. So he asked his sons to take his old age and gift him their youth. But the four elder sons Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu and Anu did not accept to that proposal. However, his last son Puru agreed to do as his father asked. After enjoying sensual pleasures some more time, Yayati returned his son’s youth, coronated him and retired to the forest. With severe austerities and control of senses, he achieved heaven. Indra asked him with whom was he equal in penance. He said that there was no one equal to him in penance. Because of his egoism, his merit diminished, and the period of his stay in the celestial worlds ended. Indra conceded Yayati’s request that from heaven he might fall down among the virtuous. While falling down Yayati saw his grandson Ashtaka and others. Having cleared their doubts regarding dharma, he again went to heaven because of the company of the virtuous. The family of Puru became famous by his name. In his line Dushyanta was born to Ilila. Once Dushyanta, while hunting, went to the hermitage of Kanva, saw there Sakuntala, the daughter of Menaka and Viswamitra, married her secretly according to the Gandharva rite, and later returned to his kingdom. Sakuntala gave birth to Bharata in the hermitage. Dushyanta did not visit them even when the boy had attained the age to be the crown-prince. Then Kanva sent Sakuntala along with his disciples to the king. When Sakuntala introduced herself in the royal court, the king treated her as a stranger and claimed that he did not know her. He asked her to go away. As the dejected Sakuntala was about to leave the assembly, a voice from the sky revealed the truth. Then Dushyanta accepted her. Afraid of the hearsay, he acted like that. His family became celebrated as Bharatavamsa after his son Bharata. In this line was born Hasti after whom the name of a place became famous. After some years Kuru was born. The family became popular by his name also. In that family, Devapi, Santanu and Bahlika were born to King Pratipa. As Devapi retired to the sacred groves in his childhood itself, Santanu became the king. His wife Ganga used to throw their new born babies in the river. She threw seven sons like this. The king was disgusted with the behaviour of his wife. He prevented her from killing the eighth child. Then Ganga left her husband and went away taking her child. After making her son well versed in all sciences, she brought him to her husband. He was Bhishma. He made two promises: 1. the son of Satyavati only would become the king and 2. he himself would be a life long celibate, and he performed the marriage of Satyavati with his father. Satyavati gave birth to two sons. The elder one Chitrangada was killed in his early age by a Gandharva. Bhishma performed the marriage of Vichitravirya with the daughters of the king of Kasi, Ambika and Ambalika. Vichitravirya died issueless. As the kingdom would become heirless, Satyavati implored Bhishma to marry. But the latter did not want to break his promise. Then Satyavati remembered Vyasa. Immediately Vyasa appeared there. He followed his mother’s word. He begot the blind Dhritarashtra on Ambika, the pale Pandu on Ambalika and the knowledgeable Vidura on their maid. Dhritarashtra and Panduraja grew up under the care of Bhishma. Dhritarashtra married Gandhari, and Pandu married Kunti and Madri. Pandu delighted everyone by conquering all the quarters. Once accompanied by his two wives, he went to hunt in the vicinity of the Himalayas. There he killed a deer couple that was engaged in intercourse. While dying the male deer cursed him that he would die if he were to engage in sex with his wife. The distressed Pandu took up vanaprastha (forest dwelling stage) and performed penance. His wives served him dutifully. Pandu wanted to beget children as a childless man could not go to heaven. Kunri then told him about the boon she received from sage Durvasas. With the permission of her husband, she gave birth to Dharmaraja having invoked Lord Yama. Gadhari also got pregnancy, but did not deliver even after two years. At last a lump of flesh hard like that of steel was delivered from her womb. As the days went by, that lump got divided into 101 pieces. On the advice of Vyasa, they were kept in pots filled with ghee. From them Duryodhana appeared first. On that very day Kunti gave birth to Bhima by the grace of the wind god. There from the pieces of flesh one after one Dussasana and others were born. A girl named Dussala was also born. After one year Kunti begot Arjuna, blessed by Indra. One day Pandu, overcome by passion, participated in sexual act with Madri, and died of the curse. Madri followed him by ascending the funeral pyre. The sages of the forest conducted Kunti and her five sons to Hastinapura and handed them over to Dhritarashtra. Vyasa consoled them and took his mother Satyavati, Ambika and Ambalika to the forest where they performed severe austerities, and attained to their desired planes after leaving their bodies. The sons of Pandu spent their time playing with the sons of Dhritarashtra. Duryodhana and others became jealous of Bhima’s strength. They waited for opportunities to harm him. Once they mixed poison in his food to kill him. On another time they tied him with creepers while he was asleep and flung him into the ocean. The terrible poisonous snakes bit him repeatedly. Still nothing happened to him. The princes studied under the tutelage of Kripacharya. Drona who was insulted by his friend king Drupada came to Hastinapura and became the teacher of the princes. Pleased with Arjuna’s expertise in archery, he decided to impart the extraordinary knowledge of astras and sastras to him. In order to keep his word, he took the right thumb of Ekalavya as his Gurudakshina. Once, while Drona was taking bath in a river, an alligator seized him by thigh. Arjuna shot sharp arrows at that crocodile which was under the water. Dronacharya was very much pleased with him, and taught him many astras. He became confident that Arjuna could defeat Drupada and bring him to him. Drona arranged a display of the proficiency in arms of the princes. Karna also wanted to participate in that. During his duel with Arjuan, the question of his not being a prince arose. Immediately Duryodhana installed him as the king of Anga. Later Arjuna defeated Drupada, bound him and brought him to his teacher. Drona disgraced him and felt happy. Then he taught the Brahmasironamakastra to Arjuna. Dhritarashtra made Dharmaraja the crown-prince. But he was worried at the prosperity of the Pandavas. On his inquiry, Kanika, the minister well versed in polity, advised him on fraudulent tact. Duryodhana who also worried put before his father the proposal of sending the Pandavas to Varanavata. Dhritarastra accepted it. 8. Jatugrihaparva Duryodhana entrusted Purochana with the responsibility of building a house of lac at Varanavata before the Pandavas’ arrival. When Pandavas set out for that city, Vidura warned Dharmaraja in a suggestive manner, which the latter understood. Pandavas arrived in Varanavata along with Kunti. Khanaka, the messenger sent by Vidura met Yudhishthira and revealed to him that on the fourteenth day of that dark fortnight, Purochana at the command of Duryodhana, would set fire to the door of their house. In order to save them from the impending danger, Khanika dug a subterranean passage under the pretext of clearing the leftovers and covered its opening skilfully. Hence no one knew about it. On one night Kunti fed a large number of Brahmins on the occasion of alms-giving. Tempted by fate, a Nishada woman came along with her five sons to that feast. And intoxicated with wine and deprived of consciousness, they lay down there to sleep. Then Bhima set fire to the place where Purochana was sleeping. The Pandavas escaped along with Kunti through the tunnel. The people of Varanavata thought that the Pandavas were burnt to death. On hearing this news, Dhritarashtra was grief stricken and wept. Vidura, who knew what had happened, feigned sorrow. The Pandavas, on their part, crossed the Ganga, but could not walk further. On the advice of Dharmaraja, Bhima started walking carrying Kunti and his brothers on his shoulders. As Kunti became thirsty, he lay them down under the shade of a papal tree and went to fetch water. By the time he returned having quenched his thirst and bathed, soaking his upper garments with water for them, they were asleep exhausted as they were. 9. Hidimbavadhaparva This section has 5 chapters and 222 verses. In that forest was living a cannibal Hidimba by name, a monster. On getting the scent of a human being, he sent his sister Hidimba on a search. Accordingly, she went to the place where the Pandavas were sleeping. On seeing Bhima there, she desired him to be her husband. As his sister did not return even after a long time, the giant arrived there himself. Then Bhima killed Hidimba. At the command of his mother Kunti, Bhima married Hidimba. She gave birth to Ghatotkacha by immediate pregnancy (sadyogarbha). Saying that he would serve them whenever required, Ghatotkacha went away in the northerly direction. 10. Bakavadhaparva There are 8 chapters with 220 verses in this section. The Pandavas along with their mother went to the town Ekachakra, and lived there incognito in the house of a Brahmin, getting along by begging alms. There lived a cannibal giant Baka in the thick woods on the outskirts of the town. As he protected that land, in return, every householder, when his turn came, supplied him with a cartful of food, two bullocks, and one member of the family towards his meals. On that day it was the turn of that Brahmin in whose house the Pandavas stayed. Hence the Brahmin couple and their son and daughter started wailing uncontrollably. On learning the matter, Kunti consulted with Bhima, and having decided to send him to Baka, consoled the Brahmin. Bhima went to Baka with the food, fought with him and killed him. The citizens of Ekachakra felt delighted. 11. Chaitrarathaparva This section contains 19 chapters and 674 verses. After killing Bakasura, the Pandavas continued to stay at the Brahmin’s house studying the Vedas. Within a few days a Brahmana of rigid vows came to the abode of their host. He gave information about king Drupada of Panchala. He said that he would go to witness the self-choice of Draupadi, the daughter of Drupada that was going to place. On hearing that Kunti became curious and prepared to leave for the beautiful city of Drupada along with her sons. Vyasa came there to meet them. He revealed to them the previous birth of Draupadi. He predicted that Panchali would choose five husbands, and blessed them to be happy having wedded her. After the departure of Vyasa, the Pandavas went to the country of Panchala led by their mother. On the way Arjuna fought with the Gandharva king Angaraparna and defeated him. Afterwards Angaparna made friendship with Arjuna. He narrated the story of Tapati and Samvarana, and also the greatness of Viswamitra and Vasishtha. On his advice, the Pandavas made Dhaumya their priest. 12. Swayamvaraparva 13. Vaivahikaparva The Swayamvaraparva has 9 chapters and the Vaivahikaparva 7 chapters. The total verses in these two sections are 457. Pandavas, attired as Brahmins, went to the hall where the swayamvara of Draupadi was to take place. Dhrishtadyumna announced in the court that Draupadi would become the wife of that person who would pierce the target through the orifice of the machine with five arrows. Many princes tried but in vain to shoot the mark. Arjuna, however, shot the mark without any difficulty, and took the hand of Draupadi. Then he took her to Kunti and announced that they had brought alms. Kunti, who was inside the house at that time, said that all the brothers should share it equally. The Pandavas then went to the palace of Drupada. Dharmaraja announced to Drupada that all the five brothers would marry Draupadi. Drupada was in a fix regarding dharma. Then Vyasa appeared there and told him about the previous birth of Draupadi, and convinced him. Draupadi was married to the five Pandavas. 14. Viduragamanarajyalambhaparva There are 13 chapters and 506 verses in it. After their marriage with Draupadi, the Pandavas stayed at the city of Drupada for one year. Duryodhana came to know of this through his spies. He became jealous of the prosperity of the Pandavas, and thought of ways to bring his enemies under control with his father. Karna advised that they should use force. Dhritarashtra also accepted that. But he invited Bhishma, Drona and other ministers and consulted with them. Bhishma said that just as Gandhari’s sons were his children so as were Kunti’s sons. Hence he should protect both Kauravas and Pandavas. So the Pandavas should be given half of the kingdom. Dronacharya also gave his consent to that. Vidura also supported them. Dhritarashtra decided to give half of the kingdom to the Pandavas, and sent Vidura to bring the Pandavas to Hastinapura. Krishna also came there. Dhritarashtra gave half of the kingdom to the Pandavas and advised them to go to Khandavaprastha. On Krishna’s instructions, Visvakarma built there the city of Indraprastha. Pandavas settled there happily. One day Narada arrived there and having narrated the story of Sunda and Upasunda, laid down the rules to be followed regarding their wife. According to him Draupadi should stay in the residence of each brother for one year. During that time other brothers should not go there. Whoever broke this rule would go on pilgrimage for one year. 15. Arjunavanavasaparva In this section there are 6 chapters and 179 verses. Pandavas were staying in Khandavaprastha following the instructions of Narada. One day some thieves stole the cattle of a Brahmin. In his bid to save the cattle of that Brahmin, Arjuna entered the chambers of Dharmaraja to get his bow and arrows. Then he defeated the thieves and restored to the Brahmin the wealth of cattle. As he broke the promise, he took the vow of going on pilgrimage for 12 years, disregarding Dharmaraja’s plea. First he went to Gangadwar and as he took his bath in Ganga. As he was coming out of the waters, Ulupi, the daughter of the serpent king saw him, and getting attracted to him, she took him to the nether world. Arjuna had fulfilled her desire. Later they returned to Gangadwar. Ulupi left him there and went back to her abode. She gave birth to Iravan. Afterwards Arjuna continued on his religious tour, and reached Manipura where he married Chitrangada who bore him a boy named Babhruvahana. He left the boy with king Chitrvahana to be made his heir, and continued on his way. 16. Subhadraharanaparva 17. Haranaharanaparva Subhadraharanaparva has two chapters and Haranaharanaparva one chapter. Arjuna later went to Prabhasatirtha. Having coming to know of his arrival through emissaries, Krishna came there to meet him. Both of them strolled leisurely around Prabhasatirtha. Afterwards they reached Raivataka, stayed there for the night, and went to Dwaraka in the morning. After some days the Yadavas organized a grand festival on Raivataka. All the citizens of Dwaraka participated in it with enthusiasm. Balarama along with his wife Revati roved hilarious with drink. There Arjuna saw Subhadra and was attracted to her. He sought Krishna’s help in possessing her. And with the permission of Krishna, he kidnapped her and took her to Indraprastha. Subhadra gave birth to Abhimanyu. Later five sons, the Upapandavas were born to Draupadi. (Their names were: Prativindhya, Srutasoma, Srutakirti, Satanika and Srutasena.) 18. Khandavadahanaparva This section contains six chapters. Later, after some time, Krishna and Arjuana, accompanied by some friends, went to the banks of Yamuna during the summer days. While wandering there, both of them reached a very beautiful place. That was near the Khandava forest. Then Agni, the Fire god approached them. He told them that he was suffering from stomach disorder owing to his drinking the ghee that was continuously poured in the hundred year sacrifice performed by king Swetaki. Burning of Khandava was the only remedy for that. He requested them to guard him from Indra, while he was engaged in setting fire to the forest. They agreed to it. Then Agni gifted Arjuna with the bow called Gandiva and inexhaustible quiver. He offered the Sudarsana disc and the mace Kaumodaki to Krishna. 19. Mayadarsanaparva There are 7 chapters in this section. Krishna and Arjuna defeated Indra, the gods and the demons, and fulfilled the desire of Agni by allowing him to consume the Khandava forest completely. Even though the forest was entirely burnt up, Asvasena, Maya and four Sarngakas escaped unhurt. The giant Maya later built a mansion for Dharmaraja

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Janmejaya conducts snake sacrifice where Mahabharata is narrated for the first time

Adi Parva, and Mahabharata in general, has been studied for evidence of caste-based social stratification in ancient India, as well as evidence for a host of theories about Vedic times in India. Such studies have become controversial.

First, the date and authenticity of the verses in Adi Parva, as well as the entire Mahabharata, has been questioned. Klaus Klostermaier, in his review of scholarly studies of Mahabharata, notes the widely held view that original Mahabharata was different from currently circulating versions. For centuries, the Mahabharata's 1, 00, 000 verses—four times the entire Bible and nine times the Iliad and the Odyssey combined—were transmitted verbally across generations, without being written down. This memorization and verbal method of transfer is believed to be a source of text corruption, addition and deletion of verses. Klostermaier notes that the original version of Mahabharata was called Jaya and had about 7000 shlokas or about 7% of current length. Adi Parva, and rest of Mahabharata, underwent at least two major changes - the first change tripled the size of Jaya epic and renamed it as Bharata, while the second change quadrupled the already expanded version. Significant changes to older editions have been traced to the first millennium AD. There are significant differences in Sanskrit manuscripts of the Mahabharata found in different parts of India and manuscripts of the Mahabharata found in other Indian languages such as Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu and others. Numerous spurious additions, interpolations and conflicting verses have been identified, many relating to history and social structure. Thus, it is unclear if the history or social structure of Vedic period or ancient India can be reliably traced from Adi Parva or Mahabharata.

Second, Adi Parva is part of an Epic fiction. Writers, including those such as Shakespeare or Homer, take liberty in developing their characters and plots, they typically represent extremes and they do not truthfully record extant history. Adi Parva has verses with a story of a river fish swallowing a man's semen and giving birth to ahuman baby after 9 months and many other myths and fictional tales. Adi Parva, like the works of Home and Shakespeare, is not a record of history.

Third, Adi Parva and other parvas of Mahabharata have been argued, suggests Klaus Klostermaier, as a treatise of symbolism, where each chapter has three different layers of meaning in its verses. The reader is painted a series of pictures through words, presented opposing views to various socio-ethical and moral questions, then left to interpret it on astikadi, manvadi and auparicara levels; in other words, as mundane interesting fiction, or as ethical treatise, or thirdly as transcendental work that draws out the war between the higher and the lower self within each reader.To deduce history of ancient India is one of many discursive choices for the interpreter.

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